The Life-sustenance Hypothesis
Understanding Human-Nature Connection by Integrating Rousseau's Philosophy to Contemporary Systems Biological Viewpoints
Keywords:
human-nature connection, nature connectedness, altruism, biophilia, Jean-Jacques RousseauAbstract
This paper develops the life-sustenance hypothesis to explain the multifaceted phenomenon of the human-nature connection. It is based on an interpretation of Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s philosophy brought into contemporary times via recent multidisciplinary research and theoretical underpinnings. Rousseau suggested that humans have two innate, instinctive drives he called amour-de-soi and pitié—a self-preservative drive, and its enlargement, an inclination to help other living beings in distress. The life-sustenance hypothesis is rooted in a systems biological framework situating humans as interconnected parts within a nested system of life. Corresponding to Rousseau’s drives, this interconnectedness is suggested to give rise to the dynamics between two life-preserving orientations that guide our manners-of-being in the world: a self-sustaining and a ‘life-sustaining’ orientation shared by all organisms, albeit manifested differently. The experience of nature connectedness, along with altruistic impulses, are proposed to be human manifestations of the life-sustaining orientation. Moreover, in line with Rousseau’s philosophy, it is posited that the modern, individualistic lifestyle has given rise to an imbalance between these orientations leading to problems in prosociality, proenvironmentalism, and overall well-being. One means by which to regain balanced manners-of-being might be to enhance our nature connectedness. Possible physiological indicators for the hypothesis are explored.
References
Allen, Andrew P, Timothy G Dinan, Gerard Clarke, and John F Cryan. ‘A Psychology of the Human Brain–Gut–Microbiome Axis.’ Social and Personality Psychology Compass vol. 11, no. 4, 2017: e12309-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12309.
Antonelli, Michele, Grazia Barbieri, and Davide Donelli. ‘Effects of Forest Bathing (Shinrin-Yoku) on Levels of Cortisol as a Stress Biomarker: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.’ International Journal of Biometeorology vol. 63, no. 8, 2019, pp. 1117–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-019-01717-x.
Azulay, Hagar, Nitzan Guy, Yoni Pertzov, and Salomon Israel. ‘Empathy Modulates the Effect of Stress Reactivity on Generous Giving.’ Frontiers in Neuroscience vol. 16, 2022, pp. 814789–814789. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2022.814789.
Barragan‐Jason, Gladys, Claire de Mazancourt, Camille Parmesan, Michael C Singer, and Michel Loreau. ‘Human–Nature Connectedness as a Pathway to Sustainability: A Global Meta‐analysis.’ Conservation Letters vol. 15, no. 1, 2022: e12852-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12852.
Barragan-Jason, Gladys, Michel Loreau, Claire de Mazancourt, Michael C Singer, and Camille Parmesan. ‘Psychological and Physical Connections with Nature Improve Both Human Well-Being and Nature Conservation: A Systematic Review of Meta-Analyses.’ Biological Conservation vol. 277, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109842.
Birch, Jonathan. ‘Are Kin and Group Selection Rivals or Friends?’ Current Biology vol. 29, no. 11, 2019: R433–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.01.065.
Boogerd, Fred, Frank J. Bruggeman, Jan-Hendrik S. Hofmeyr, and Hans V. Westerhoff. ‘1 - Towards Philosophical Foundations of Systems Biology: Introduction.’ In Systems Biology, pp. 3–19. Elsevier B.V, 2007. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-044452085-2/50003-6.
Bruckner, Joseph J, Sarah J Stednitz, Max Z Grice, Dana Zaidan, Michelle S Massaquoi, Johannes Larsch, Alexandra Tallafuss, Karen Guillemin, Philip Washbourne, and Judith S Eisen. ‘The Microbiota Promotes Social Behavior by Modulating Microglial Remodeling of Forebrain Neurons.’ PLoS Biology vol. 20, no. 11, 2022: e3001838–e3001838. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001838.
Buchanan, Tony W, Sara L Bagley, R. Brent Stansfield, and Stephanie D Preston. ‘The Empathic, Physiological Resonance of Stress.’ Social Neuroscience vol. 7, no. 2, 2012, pp. 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2011.588723.
Capra, Fritjof, and Pier Luigi Luisi. The Systems View of Life: A Unifying Vision. Cambridge University Press, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511895555.
Carron, Paul. ‘Ape Imagination? A Sentimentalist Critique of Frans de Waal’s Gradualist Theory of Human Morality.’ Biology & Philosophy vol. 33, no. 3–4, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-018-9632-4.
Chang, Chia-Chen, Brenda B Lin, Xiaoqi Feng, Erik Andersson, John Gardner, and Thomas Astell-Burt. ‘A Lower Connection to Nature Is Related to Lower Mental Health Benefits from Nature Contact.’ Scientific Reports vol. 14, no. 1, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-56968-5.
Cialdini, Robert B, Mark Schaller, Donald Houlihan, Kevin Arps, Jim Fultz, and Arthur L Beaman. ‘Empathy-Based Helping: Is It Selflessly or Selfishly Motivated?’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology vol. 52, no. 4, 1987, pp. 749–58. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.4.749.
Cusimano, Samuel, and Beckett Sterner. ‘The Objectivity of Organizational Functions.’ Acta Biotheoretica vol. 68, no. 2, 2020, pp. 253–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10441-019-09365-9.
Dane, Laura K, Peter K Jonason, and Marlene McCaffrey. ‘Physiological Tests of the Cheater Hypothesis for the Dark Triad Traits: Testosterone, Cortisol, and a Social Stressor.’ Personality and Individual Differences vol. 121, 2018, pp. 227–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.09.010.
Damasio, Antonio. The Strange Order of Things: Life, Feeling, and the Making of Cultures. New York: Pantheon Books, 2018.
Darwin, Charles. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. London: John Murray, 1871.
Darwin, Charles. The Expressions of the Emotions in Man and Animals. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1897.
Darwin, Charles. On the Origin of Species: By Means of Natural Selection. 6th ed. Auckland: Floating Press, 2009 [1876].
von Dawans, Bernadette, Julia Strojny, and Gregor Domes. ‘The Effects of Acute Stress and Stress Hormones on Social Cognition and Behavior: Current State of Research and Future Directions.’ Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews vol. 121, 2021, pp. 75–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.11.026.
De Dreu, Carsten K.W. ‘Oxytocin Modulates Cooperation within and Competition between Groups: An Integrative Review and Research Agenda.’ Hormones and Behavior vol. 61, no. 3, 2012, pp. 419–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.12.009.
Desai, Radhika, Anisha Tailor, and Tanvi Bhatt. ‘Effects of Yoga on Brain Waves and Structural Activation: A Review.’ Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice vol. 21, no. 2, 2015, pp. 112–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2015.02.002.
de Waal, Frans B.M. ‘Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy.’ Annual Review of Psychology vol. 59, no. 1, 2008, pp. 279–300. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625.
Diehm, Christian. Connectedness to Nature, Deep Ecology, and Conservation Social Science. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2020.
Evetts, Cynthia. ‘Fight or Flight Versus Tend and Befriend Behavioral Response to Stress.’ The American Journal of Occupational Therapy vol. 71, no. 4_Supplement_1, 2017: 7111505083-7111505083p1. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2017.71S1-PO1127.
Freitas, Carolina Coelho Moniz de Campos, and Flávia de Lima Osório. ‘Moral Judgment and Hormones: A Systematic Literature Review.’ PloS One vol. 17, no. 4, 2022: e0265693–e0265693. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265693.
Fromm, Erich. The Heart of Man: Its Genius for Good and Evil. New York: Harper and Row, 1964.
Gallegos-Riofrío, Carlos Andres, Hassan Arab, Amaya Carrasco-Torrontegui, and Rachelle K Gould. ‘Chronic Deficiency of Diversity and Pluralism in Research on Nature’s Mental Health Effects: A Planetary Health Problem.’ Current Research in Environmental Sustainability vol. 4, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2022.100148.
Gardner, Andy. ‘Genetical Theory of Multilevel Selection.’ Journal of Evolutionary Biology vol. 28, no. 2, 2015, pp. 305–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/jeb.12566.
Grahn, Patrik, Johan Ottosson, and Kerstin Uvnäs-Moberg. ‘The Oxytocinergic System as a Mediator of Anti-Stress and Instorative Effects Induced by Nature: The Calm and Connection Theory.’ Frontiers in Psychology vol. 12, 2021: 617814-. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.617814.
Haga, Andreas, Niklas Halin, Mattias Holmgren, and Patrik Sörqvist. ‘Psychological Restoration Can Depend on Stimulus-Source Attribution: A Challenge for the Evolutionary Account?’ Frontiers in Psychology vol. 7, 2016: 1831–1831. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01831.
Hepach, Robert, Amrisha Vaish, and Michael Tomasello. ‘A New Look at Children’s Prosocial Motivation.’ Infancy vol. 18, no. 1, 2013, pp. 67–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7078.2012.00130.x.
Hepach, Robert, Jan M. Engelmann, Esther Herrmann, Stella C. Gerdemann & Tomasello, Michael. Evidence for a developmental shift in the motivation underlying helping in early childhood. Developmental Science, vol. 26, no. 1, 2023: e13253. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13253
Herrando, Carolina, and Efthymios Constantinides. ‘Emotional Contagion: A Brief Overview and Future Directions.’ Frontiers in Psychology vol. 12, 2021: 712606–712606. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.712606.
Hurly, Jane, and Gordon J Walker. ‘Nature in Our Lives: Examining the Human Need for Nature Relatedness as a Basic Psychological Need.’ Journal of Leisure Research vol. 50, no. 4, 2019, pp. 290–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.2019.1578939.
Josipovic, Zoran. ‘Neural Correlates of Nondual Awareness in Meditation.’ Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1307, no. 1 (2014): 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12261.
Joye, Yannick, and Andreas DeBlock. ‘‘Nature and I Are Two’: A Critical Examination of the Biophilia Hypothesis.’ Environmental Values vol. 20, no. 2, 2011, pp. 189–215. https://doi.org/10.3197/096327111X12997574391724.
Joye, Yannick, and Siegfried Dewitte. ‘Nature’s Broken Path to Restoration. A Critical Look at Attention Restoration Theory.’ Journal of Environmental Psychology vol. 59, 2018, pp. 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.08.006.
Jylkkä, Jussi, and Henry Railo. ‘Consciousness as a Concrete Physical Phenomenon.’ Consciousness and Cognition vol. 74, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2019.102779.
Kamei, Tsutomu, Yoshitaka Toriumi, Hiroshi Kimura, Hiroaki Kumano, Satoshi Ohno, and Keishin Kimura. ‘Decrease in Serum Cortisol during Yoga Exercise Is Correlated with Alpha Wave Activation.’ Perceptual and Motor Skills vol. 90, no. 3, 2000, pp. 1027–32. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.2000.90.3.1027.
Kaplan, Stephen. ‘The Restorative Benefits of Nature: Toward an Integrative Framework.’ Journal of Environmental Psychology vol. 15, no. 3, 1995, pp. 169–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-4944(95)90001-2.
Karjalainen, Suvi, Tuija Aro, and Tiina Parviainen. ‘Coactivation of Autonomic and Central Nervous Systems During Processing of Socially Relevant Information in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review.’ Neuropsychology Review vol. 34, no. 1, 2024, pp. 214–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-023-09579-2.
Kirschbaum, Clemens, and Dirk H Hellhammer. ‘Salivary Cortisol in Psychoneuroendocrine Research: Recent Developments and Applications.’ Psychoneuroendocrinology. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd, 1994. https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-4530(94)90013-2.
Klimesch, Wolfgang. ‘The Frequency Architecture of Brain and Brain Body Oscillations: An Analysis.’ The European Journal of Neuroscience vol. 48, no. 7, 2018, pp. 2431–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.14192.
Koivisto, Mika, Enni Jalava, Lina Kuusisto, Henry Railo, and Simone Grassini. ‘Top-Down Processing and Nature Connectedness Predict Psychological and Physiological Effects of Nature.’ Environment and Behavior vol. 54, no. 5, 2022, pp. 917–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139165221107535.
Khine, Wei Wei Thwe. Human Microbiota : Determining Dietary Factors on the Journey from Infants to Adults. Dissertation, University of Turku, 2022. https://www.utupub.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/154767/AnnalesD1666Khine.pdf?sequence=1
Kraemer, Kristen M., Felipe A. Jain, Darshan H. Mehta, and Gregory L. Fricchione. ‘Meditative and Mindfulness-Focused Interventions in Neurology: Principles, Science, and Patient Selection.’ Seminars in Neurology vol. 42, no. 2, 2022, pp. 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0042-1742287.
Kropotkin, Peter. Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution. London: Freedom Press, 1987 [1902].
Leopold, Aldo. A Sand County Almanac. New York: Oxford University Press, 1949.
Levy, Kenneth N, Jessica K Hlay, Benjamin N Johnson, and Courtney P Witmer. ‘An Attachment Theoretical Perspective on Tend-and-Befriend Stress Reactions.’ Evolutionary Psychological Science vol. 5, no. 4, 2019, pp. 426–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-019-00197-x.
Liu, Richard T. ‘The Microbiome as a Novel Paradigm in Studying Stress and Mental Health.’ The American Psychologist vol. 72, no. 7, 2017, pp. 655–67. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000058.
Liu, Yongbo, Anne Cleary, Kelly S Fielding, Zoe Murray, and Anne Roiko. ‘Nature Connection, pro-Environmental Behaviours and Wellbeing: Understanding the Mediating Role of Nature Contact.’ Landscape and Urban Planning vol. 228, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2022.104550.
Martin, Leanne, Mathew P White, Anne Hunt, Miles Richardson, Sabine Pahl, and Jim Burt. ‘Nature Contact, Nature Connectedness and Associations with Health, Wellbeing and pro-Environmental Behaviours.’ Journal of Environmental Psychology vol. 68, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101389.
Maturana, Humberto R., and Francisco J. Varela. Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1972.
Mayer, F.Stephan, and Cynthia McPherson Frantz. ‘The Connectedness to Nature Scale: A Measure of Individuals’ Feeling in Community with Nature.’ Journal of Environmental Psychology vol. 24, no. 4, 2004, pp. 503–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2004.10.001.
Mayo, Oded, Michal Lavidor, and Ilanit Gordon. ‘Interpersonal Autonomic Nervous System Synchrony and Its Association to Relationship and Performance – a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.’ Physiology & Behavior vol. 235, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113391.
McEwen, Bruce S, and John C Wingfield. ‘What Is in a Name? Integrating Homeostasis, Allostasis and Stress.’ Hormones and Behavior vol. 57, no. 2, 2010, pp. 105–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.09.011.
McKlveen, J. M, B Myers, and J. P Herman. ‘The Medial Prefrontal Cortex: Coordinator of Autonomic, Neuroendocrine and Behavioural Responses to Stress.’ Journal of Neuroendocrinology vol. 27, no. 6, 2015, pp. 446–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/jne.12272.
Meincke, Anne Sophie. ‘Autopoiesis, Biological Autonomy and the Process View of Life.’ European Journal for Philosophy of Science vol. 9, no. 1, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13194-018-0228-2.
Moreno, Alvaro, and Matteo Mossio. Biological Autonomy: A Philosophical and Theoretical Enquiry. Dordrecht: Springer, 2015.
Moreno, Alvaro. ‘A Systemic Approach to the Origin of Biological Organization.’ In Systems Biology, 2007, pp. 243–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-044452085-2/50013-9.
Næss, Arne. ‘The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movement.’ Inquiry vol 16, 1973, pp. 95–100.
Neuhouser, Frederick. Rousseau’s Theodicy of Self-Love: Evil, Rationality, and the Drive for Recognition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Nisbett, Richard E, Kaiping Peng, Incheol Choi, and Ara Norenzayan. ‘Culture and Systems of Thought: Holistic Versus Analytic Cognition.’ Psychological Review vol. 108, no. 2, 2001, pp. 291–310. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.2.291.
Oberle, Eva, and Kimberly A Schonert-Reichl. ‘Stress Contagion in the Classroom? The Link between Classroom Teacher Burnout and Morning Cortisol in Elementary School Students.’ Social Science & Medicine (1982) vol. 159, 2016, pp. 30–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.04.031.
Okasha, Samir. ‘Biological Altruism.’ The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2020 Edition), edited by Edward N. Zalta, 2020. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2020/entries/altruism-biological
Otto, Siegmar, Pamela Pensini, Sarah Zabel, Pablo Diaz-Siefer, Elliot Burnham, Claudia Navarro-Villarroel, and Alexander Neaman. ‘The Prosocial Origin of Sustainable Behavior: A Case Study in the Ecological Domain.’ Global Environmental Change vol. 69, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102312.
Pascoe, Michaela C, David R Thompson, Zoe M Jenkins, and Chantal F Ski. ‘Mindfulness Mediates the Physiological Markers of Stress: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.’ Journal of Psychiatric Research vol. 95, 2017, pp. 156–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.08.004.
Pfattheicher, Stefan, Yngwie Asbjørn Nielsen, and Isabel Thielmann. ‘Prosocial Behavior and Altruism: A Review of Concepts and Definitions.’ Current Opinion in Psychology 44 (2022): 124–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.08.021.
Pérez‐Manrique, Ana, and Antoni Gomila. ‘Emotional Contagion in Nonhuman Animals: A Review.’ Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Cognitive Science vol. 13, no. 1, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1560.
Pinker, Steven. The Better Angels of Our Nature: The Decline of Violence in History and Its Causes. New York, NY: Penguin, 2012.
Plumwood, Val. ‘Nature, Self, and Gender: Feminism, Environmental Philosophy, and the Critique of Rationalism.’ Hypatia vol. 6, no. 1, 1991, pp. 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1527-2001.1991.tb00206.x.
Rathmann, Joachim, Kalevi M Korpela, and Philipp Stojakowits. ‘Pleistocene Hypothesis – Moving Savanna Perceptual Preference Hypothesis Beyond Savanna.’ Frontiers in Psychology vol. 13, 2022. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.901799.
Reindl, Vanessa, Sam Wass, Victoria Leong, Wolfgang Scharke, Sandra Wistuba, Christina Lisa Wirth, Kerstin Konrad, and Christian Gerloff. ‘Multimodal Hyperscanning Reveals That Synchrony of Body and Mind Are Distinct in Mother-Child Dyads.’ NeuroImage (Orlando, Fla.) vol. 251, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.118982.
Reinhard, David A, Sara H Konrath, William D Lopez, and Heather G Cameron. ‘Expensive Egos: Narcissistic Males Have Higher Cortisol.’ PloS One vol. 7, no. 1, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0030858.
Richerson, Peter J., and Robert Boyd. ‘The Darwinian Theory of Human Cultural Evolution and Gene-Culture Coevolution.’ In Evolution Since Darwin: The First 150 Years, edited by M. A. Bell, D. J. Futuyma, W. F. Eanes, and J. S. Levinton. Gruter Institute Squaw Valley Conference 2010: Law, Institutions & Human Behavior, 2010. https://ssrn.com/abstract=1616311
Robinson, Jake M, and Martin F Breed. ‘The Lovebug Effect: Is the Human Biophilic Drive Influenced by Interactions between the Host, the Environment, and the Microbiome?’ The Science of the Total Environment vol. 720, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137626.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Julie, or the New Heloise: Letters of Two Lovers Who Live in a Small Town at the Foot of the Alps. Edited by Jean Vaché. Dartmouth College Press. ProQuest Ebook Central, 1997 [1761].
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Emile: or On Education. Translated by Allan Bloom. Basic Books, 1979 [1762].
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. Essay on the Origin of Languages and Writings Related to Music. Translated and edited by John T. Scott. University Press of New England, 1998 [1781].
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Confessions. Wordsworth Editions, 1996 [1782a].
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Confessions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Complete. The Floating Press. ProQuest Ebook Central, 2012 [1782b].
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Reveries of a Solitary Walker. Lenox Hill, 1927 [1782c].
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques and Kelly, Richard (Ed.). Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Autobiographical, Scientific, Religious, Moral, and Literary Writings. Dartmouth college press, University press of New England, 2007.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. A Discourse on Inequality. Open Road Integrated Media, Inc. ProQuest Ebook Central, 2010 [1755].
Rozenberg, G. S, T. D Zinchenko, and A. G Rozenberg. ‘Hierarchy of Ecological Homeostasis as a Principle of Systemology.’ Biology Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences vol. 50, no. Suppl 1, 2023, pp.109–17. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1062359023601271.
Salmi, Irina. "Nature-connective educational architecting–an approach to education based on the life-sustenance hypothesis." Humanities and Social Sciences Communications vol. 12, no. 1, 2025, pp. 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-05483-7
Sapolsky, Robert M. ‘How Do Glucocorticoids Influence Stress Responses? Integrating Permissive, Suppressive, Stimulatory, and Preparative Actions.’ Endocrine Reviews vol. 21, no. 1, 2000, pp. 55–89. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.21.1.55.
Sapolsky, Robert M. Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers: The Acclaimed Guide to Stress, Stress-Related Diseases, and Coping. 3rd ed. New York: Henry Holt, 2004.
Schulkin, Jay. Adaptation and Well-Being: Social Allostasis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ProQuest Ebook Central, 2011. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kutu/detail.action?docID=691833.
Schutte, Nicola S, and John M Malouff. ‘Mindfulness and Connectedness to Nature: A Meta-Analytic Investigation.’ Personality and Individual Differences vol. 127, 2018, pp. 10–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.01.034.
Shuda, Quincy, Michael E Bougoulias, and Rebecca Kass. ‘Effect of Nature Exposure on Perceived and Physiologic Stress: A Systematic Review.’ Complementary Therapies in Medicine vol. 53, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2020.102514.
Singer, Nina, Julia Binapfl, Monika Sommer, Stefan Wüst and Brigitte M. Kudielka. ‘Everyday moral decision-making after acute stress exposure: do social closeness and timing matter?’. Stress, vol. 24, no. 4, 2021a, pp. 468–473. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890.2020.1846029
Singer, Nina, Monika Sommer, Stefan Wüst, and Brigitte M Kudielka. ‘Effects of Gender and Personality on Everyday Moral Decision-Making after Acute Stress Exposure.’ Psychoneuroendocrinology vol. 124, 2021b. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.105084.
Smith, Ashley M, Timothy J Loving, Erin E Crockett, and Lorne Campbell. ‘What’s Closeness Got to Do with It? Men’s and Women’s Cortisol Responses When Providing and Receiving Support.’ Psychosomatic Medicine vol. 71, no. 8, 2009, pp. 843–51. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181b492e6.
Sterling, Peter, and Joseph Eyer. ‘Allostasis: A New Paradigm to Explain Arousal Pathology.’ In Handbook of Life Stress, Cognition and Health, edited by S. Fisher and J. T. Reason, 629–649. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1988.
Strahler, Jana, Nadine Skoluda, Mattes B Kappert, and Urs M Nater. ‘Simultaneous Measurement of Salivary Cortisol and Alpha-Amylase: Application and Recommendations.’ Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews vol. 83, 2017, pp. 657–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.08.015.
Sun, Ying, Peijun Ju, Ting Xue, Usman Ali, Donghong Cui, and Jinghong Chen. ‘Alteration of Faecal Microbiota Balance Related to Long-Term Deep Meditation.’ General Psychiatry vol. 36, no. 1, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1136/gpsych-2022-100893.
Sundman, Ann-Sofie, Enya Van Poucke, Ann-Charlotte Svensson Holm, Åshild Faresjö, Elvar Theodorsson, Per Jensen, and Lina S. V Roth. ‘Long-Term Stress Levels Are Synchronized in Dogs and Their Owners.’ Scientific Reports vol 9, no. 1, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-43851-x.
Taggart, P, H Critchley, and P. D Lambiase. ‘Heartbrain Interactions in Cardiac Arrhythmia.’ Heart (British Cardiac Society) vol 97, no. 9, 2011, pp. 698–708. https://doi.org/10.1136/hrt.2010.209304.
Tam, Kim-Pong. ‘Concepts and Measures Related to Connection to Nature: Similarities and Differences.’ Journal of Environmental Psychology vol. 34, 2013, pp. 64–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.01.004.
Taylor, Shelley E. ‘Tend and Befriend: Biobehavioral Bases of Affiliation under Stress.’ Current Directions in Psychological Science : A Journal of the American Psychological Society vol. 15, no. 6, 2006, pp. 273–77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00451.x.
Ulrich, Roger S, Robert F Simons, Barbara D Losito, Evelyn Fiorito, Mark A Miles, and Michael Zelson. ‘Stress Recovery during Exposure to Natural and Urban Environments.’ Journal of Environmental Psychology vol. 11, no. 3, 1991, pp. 201–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80184-7.
Ulrich, Roger S. ‘Biophilia, Biophobia, and Natural Landscapes.’ In The Biophilia Hypothesis, edited by Stephen R. Kellert and Edward O. Wilson, 1993, pp. 73–137. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Veer, Ilya M, Nicole Y.L Oei, Philip Spinhoven, Mark A van Buchem, Bernet M Elzinga, and Serge A.R.B Rombouts. ‘Beyond Acute Social Stress: Increased Functional Connectivity between Amygdala and Cortical Midline Structures.’ NeuroImage (Orlando, Fla.) vol. 57, no. 4, 2011, pp. 1534–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.05.074.
Wardecker, Britney M, William J Chopik, Onawa P LaBelle, and Robin S Edelstein. ‘Is Narcissism Associated with Baseline Cortisol in Men and Women?’ Journal of Research in Personality vol. 72 ,2018, pp. 44–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2016.07.006.
Wethington, E. ‘Contagion of Stress.’ Advances in Group Processes, vol. 17, 2000, pp. 229–253. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0882-6145(00)17010-9.
Wilson, Edward O. Biophilia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984.
Wilson, David Sloan, and Edward O. Wilson. 2007. ‘Rethinking the Theoretical Foundation of Sociobiology.’ The Quarterly Review of Biology vol. 82, no. 4, pp. 327–348. https://doi.org/10.1086/522809.
Wilson, David Sloan. This View of Life: Completing the Darwinian Revolution. 1st ed. New York: Vintage Books, 2019.
Whitburn, Julie, Wayne Linklater, and Wokje Abrahamse. ‘Meta‐analysis of Human Connection to Nature and Proenvironmental Behavior.’ Conservation Biology vol. 34, no. 1, 2020, pp. 180–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13381.
Wu, Jianhui, Shen Zhang, Wanqing Li, Shaozheng Qin, Yong He, Zhi Yang, Tony W Buchanan, Chao Liu, and Kan Zhang. ‘Cortisol Awakening Response Predicts Intrinsic Functional Connectivity of the Medial Prefrontal Cortex in the Afternoon of the Same Day.’ NeuroImage (Orlando, Fla.) vol. 122, 2015, pp. 158–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.08.016.
Yaden, David Bryce, Jonathan Haidt, Ralph W Hood, David R Vago, and Andrew B Newberg. ‘The Varieties of Self-Transcendent Experience.’ Review of General Psychology vol. 21, no. 2, 2017, 143–60. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000102.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Irina Salmi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
